Jeremy Hunt MP: In Transatlantic Conversation on Iran”, The HJS Virtual Event Series: ‘COVID-19 and Social Media – Meeting Challenges using Lessons Learned from Countering Terrorism’, HJS VIRTUAL EVENT: Ukraine: Coronavirus, Conflict, and Corruption, HJS VIRTUAL EVENT: Covid-19 and the Future of Geopolitical Fault Lines in Europe, HJS ONLINE EVENT: Public Attitudes Towards the UK Government’s Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic, When the World Wasn’t Looking: How Authoritarian States Have Taken Advantage of the Covid-19 Crisis, Has China Won? Check it out: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E24BK6WOb0Q&t=171s, WATCH: Leaving Islamism: In Conversation with a former Al-Qaeda Recruiter HJS EVENT: Is the Left Losing British Indians? These included the 24 sailors Russia illegally detained in the Kerch Strat in 2018 and 11 political prisoners, not least the film director Oleg Sentsov and the student Pavlo Hyrb. Similar legislation has since been adopted in the … Continued, Prof. Andrew Lambert’s new book, Seapower States examines how Britain and four other seapowers used their special identities to inform their decision-making, enabling them to achieve success disproportionate to their size. SPEAKERS: Dr Brian Klaas and Professor Nic Cheeseman, co-authors, How to Rig an Election Contrary to what is commonly believed, authoritarian leaders who agree to hold elections are generally able to remain in power longer than autocrats who … Continued, SPEAKER: Professor Carl Minzner, author, End of an Era China’s reform era is ending. It becomes especially relevant in the age of populism, pessimism and political uncertainty. By relying on his extensive experience and expertise, the former European Commissioner for Trade and Director-General of the World Trade Organization Pascal Lamy will present his views … Continued, The rising wealth of middle class households and voters has transformed the politics of banking crises. What role do women play in the radicalisation process? A ground-breaking work of political analysis, Future … Continued, Though mankind has traded tangible goods for millennia, recent technology has changed the fundamentals of trade, in both legitimate and illegal economies. It focused on the changing strategic situation in Europe. A number of these political prisoners were taken hostage during the early stages of Russia’s … Continued, In August, Indian Prime Minister Modi revoked the special status granted to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Constitution. Geopolitics is the battle for space and power played out in a geographical setting. From India’s strong presence in Davos in 2006 and 2015 and in between, it marked a renewed confidence that India was an economic might in its own right. In addition to this, cultural fault-lines have emerged over the content and … Continued, Anybody familiar with Russia will recognise the constancy of campaigns launched by state, quasi-state, and non-state actors – from law enforcement officers to so-called journalists and internet trolls – to discredit out-of-favour figures by the spreading of damaging information about them and their alleged activities. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. Equally important was the fact that, as of August 1945, with the notable exception of the British Royal Navy, every other navy in the world had been destroyed. NATO: EUROPEAN SECURITY AT A TIME OF TRANSATLANTIC UNCERTAINTY, HJS REPORT LAUNCH: “DEFENDING EUROPE: ‘GLOBAL BRITAIN’ AND THE FUTURE OF EUROPEAN GEOPOLITICS”. Will the U.S. build up bigger and bigger … Continued, Five years ago next month, Russia annexed Crimea in the first forcible annexation of the territory of a European country since 1945. This has focused on the economic, political, social and cultural aspects of immigration and its effect on the British economy and society. Geopolitics affects the lives of all Europeans. It is no wonder that Prime Minister Boris Johnson was keen to visit New Delhi for the country’s national day last month. In the meantime, there are shifts inside Europe – … Continued, As the United Kingdom leaves the European Union, geopolitics is returning to the European continent. Geopolitical means the importance of geography on the areas of politics or economics or military or other areas of importance from one observer’s viewpoint. By this point Xi hopes to restore China as a great nation, one … Continued, The election of Donald Trump in 2016 ushered in a very unique and controversial style of US Presidency. And what does this mean for Arctic politics? THE HJS VIRTUAL EVENT SERIES: ‘Is Europe still ‘postmodern’?’, The HJS Virtual Event Series: ‘Prof. Some Venezuelans have responded by emigrating, leading to one of … Continued, As we commemorate the 30th anniversary of the events culminating in the Tiananmen Square Massacre of June 4th 1989, it is important to note that the Chinese Communist Party does not – despite its insistence on this point – speak for all Chinese. This proposition encounters widespread disbelief. How has the West to responded to these? The outcome of the Israeli elections, that will take place … Continued, For the past decade, Japan and the United Kingdom have been forming a closer strategic partnership, to extent that the two countries declared that they regard one another as each other’s “closest security partners respectively in Asia and Europe.” As two of the world’s leading powers, Britain and Japan have the power to lay the … Continued, For Israel, security concerns not only span the volatile region it inhabits but also transcend to threats from far further afield. The U.S. drone attack on January 3 that killed Qasem Soleimani has raised numerous questions under U.S. and international law. At the level of international relations, geopolitics i However, there is more funding available … Continued, Disengagement and deradicalisation are terms often used interchangeably, with little meaningful inquiry as to what either imply. With more than 12% of its trade transiting the sea lane and a … Continued, Moneyland is the secret country of the wealthy and unscrupulous, the place where they put their assets, their children and themselves to escape scrutiny and oversight. The former state has been redesignated as two Union districts. Nothing undermines our freedom more than losing control of information about ourselves. And yet the culture and literature are often ignored in political analyses. Are women’s voices heard in setting the government agenda of deradicalisation? In this frame, the northwestern region Xinjiang assumes a crucial geopolitical strategic importance for China. Decoupling from China: The Future of Trade? With the collapse of Islamic State and an increasing flow of … Continued, There are many reasons why the peace process between Israelis and Palestinians has foundered. Its aim is to oppose the idea that the interests of the state and its political allies are the same as the interests of communities. Russia looms over the continent, Turkey is becoming more unpredictable, and China’s presence is expanding. Trust. In their new book, The Wealth Effect: How the Great Expectations of the Middle … Continued, In the state elections in December 2018, the big loser was the BJP, which had won 62 of 65 Lok Sabha seats in these states in the Modi Wave of 2014. Five years later elections, widely seen as unfree and unfair, took place in an attempt to legitimise this rule. Within weeks, he would flee for Russia. (Wikimedia) Geopolitics is one framework for understanding the resurgence and implications of contemporary great power politics in the region. But to those who have been paying attention, it was only a more violent, extreme expression of the broader trend that has … Continued, The appeal to science to strengthen racist ideologies is on the rise - and increasingly part of the public discourse on politics, migration, education, sport and intelligence. President Donald Trump’s unorthodox approach to foreign policy together and the uncertainty caused by Brexit have led to a period of flux in the UK-US’ trans-Atlantic alliance. While it places particular stress on geographic space as a critically important strategic factor and source of power, it recognizes that geography is only a part of the totality of global phenomena. Encyclopedia Britannica defines Geopolitics as, “analysis of the geographic influences on power relationships in international relations.” Traditionally, the geo-political importance of the region where Pakistan is located was established in the late eighteenth century by Alford Mackinder as part of the inner marginal crescent of the Heartland and by Nicholas. The celebrated Bletchley Park codebreakers who broke Hitler’s ciphers in WW2 had no idea that their predecessors had broken French ciphers during the Napoleonic … Continued, PROFESSOR NIGEL BIGGAR, Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology, Oxford University, in conversation with Douglas Murray The nation-state is here to stay. This less benign strategic environment is emerging at a time of military technological change, with the development of direct energy weapons, autonomous and semi-autonomous systems, and cyber capabilities. He was here to present and discuss the thesis of his newly book – Geopolitics: A Very Short Introduction. … Continued, SPEAKER: EHUD OLMERT, former Prime Minister of Israel It’s been 10 years since the last meaningful peace deal was put forward by Israel to the Palestinians. As Britain reshapes its global future, it will increasingly turn to other partners and allies. This assemblage of things, Dodds explained to the audience, is indicative of a new real of geopolitics at play. NATO now has thousands of troops, armour and aircraft stationed in … Continued, It is clear that women serve as facilitators, supporters, and instigators of violence in terrorist movements. This followed the 2016 Easter Sunday terrorist attack … Continued, The UK has suffered at the hands of far-right terrorism in recent times. Such assassinations have almost always been accompanied by disinformation campaigns in which Russia’s state-run media outlets have played a central role. However, there is still … Continued, The 'Asian Century' is even bigger than you think. Behind are the dualism of military presence based on the nuclear weapons’ In an attempt to address the issues of these ‘danger zones’, G eopolitics: A Very Short Introduction offers a straightforward analysis of why even far away from these ‘danger zones’ – in Europe or the US for example – geopolitics remains an important part of everyday life. The roundtable will comprise three panels, chaired by Matthew Henderson and James Rogers of the Henry Jackson Society. For most of this period, the recession was shallow and even disputed, generating only modest overall global declines in political rights and civil liberties, and leaving the basic contours of democratic predominance in the world unchanged. Dissecting the Election Results: What Is Next for India? Authoritarian Challenges to the Liberal World Order, Disinformation During COVID-19: The US-UK Experience, Russian Spies and the Diaspora: The Compatriots with Irina Borogan and Andrei Soldatov, Incarcerated and Indoctrinated: How to Tackle Extremism in Prisons, Directions for the next National Cyber Security Strategy. He also serves on a number of advisory committees and councils including the All Party Parliamentary Group for the Polar Regions. The most important aspect of the critical geopolitics was the challenge it brought to the realist approach and its focus points. By applying a hybrid methodology which combines qualitative and quantitative analyses we conclude that there is a connection between Poland's geopolitical factors (stable, variable and interactional) and the volume, origin and distribution of the FDI received. … Continued, In light of the publication of the Modernising Defence Programme in December 2018, which recognised the emergence of a more volatile and competitive world system, it has been argued that the United Kingdom is being forced once again to revisit its strategic defence posture. For a country’s location and size as well as its sovereignty and resources all affect how the people that live there understand and interact with the wider world. Geopolitics – the study of the interaction between geography, international politics, and international relations – has seemingly passed its heyday and critiques are now coming from several fronts. Some, like those in the Baltics, have become democratic and liberal, while others, such as Belarus and Tajikistan, remain authoritarian regimes. Across the 1.5 million square mile … Continued, SPEAKER: PROFESSOR CHRISTOPHER ANDREW, Author of The Secret World: A History of Intelligence Partly because of official secrecy, no 20th century profession was as ignorant of its history as the intelligence community. teaching, he says. The opposition Indian National Congress, failed to improve on its dismal 2014 showing and now faces an existential crisis. The Chinese Challenge to American Primacy” – veteran diplomat Professor Kishore Mahbubani takes as his starting point the common idea that the defining geopolitical clash of the century will be between the USA and China, … Continued, As Europe is to mark the 75th anniversary of the end of WW2, national narratives of those historic events hugely differ across Europe. In midst of this strategic competition an island nation like Sri Lanka is of crucial importance for all the players in the Indian Ocean Region and has played a significant role in the geopolitics … … Continued, In the eyes of many, the prospect of a two-state solution to the Israel-Palestine conflict is diminishing. … Continued, To book for our next event, Exploding Data: Reclaiming Our Cyber Security in the Digital Age, press here. By applying a hybrid methodology which combines qualitative and quantitative analyses we conclude that there is a connection between Poland's geopolitical … Issuing Interpol Red Notices to critics, mounting libel actions, and … Continued, As the prospect of British withdrawal from the European Union has been pushed back beyond the original date (29th March 2019), Brexit has created more and more uncertainty. Russia continues to menace its European neighbours, and British allies and partners. One of the most contentious issues between the two sides has been “the Right of Return” of Palestinian refugees to Israel proper, and how many such people will be allowed to enter Israel as part of any peace deal. The first-ever Women, Peace and Security Index offers a comprehensive measure of women's well-being and empowerment in homes, communities, and societies. The word geopolitics was originally coined by the Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellén about the turn of the 20th century, and its use spread throughout Europe in the period between World Wars I and II (1918–39) and came into worldwide use during the latter. A succession … Continued, The Middle East remains one of the most tumultuous regions in the world today, with its many ethnic and religious minorities often suffering more than most. For the past week, citizens have protested against Lukashenka’s government and the election results. Islam is both a religion and a political-social ideology. Core Assumptions and British Strategic Policy, 2020: President Trump Confronts Iran and Impeachment, Revolution Française: Emmanuel Macron and the Quest to Reinvent a Nation. Since the end of the Cold War, the 15 successor states to the Soviet Union have adopted different paths to their economic and political transition. Malcolm Turnbull, Former Australian Prime Minister, for a special event chaired by Tom Tugendhat MP, Chair of the Foreign Affairs Select Committee, to discuss "Preserving the Freedom of the Asia Pacific in an Age of Great Power Rivalry". He was the 5th Commander of … Continued, These days the world is facing an unprecedented wave of violent extremism by non-state actors of various stripes. Geopolitics helps you spot ones that are important for real. With emotions running high and divisions stoked by both Beijing and radicalised and fearful protesters, it is easy to lose sight of what we are seeing in the latest research data. Over the course of the Covid-19 pandemic, there have been concerns that exam cancellations and the shift towards greater virtual learning, carries the risk of widening existing social and economic inequalities in England. The Chinese Challenge to American Primacy, “Don’t Mention the War”: Reconciling WW2 Narratives to Ensure Safer European Future, HJS VIRTUAL EVENT: “The Atlantic Alliance During a New Age of Great Power Competition”, The Great Coming Apart? One of the first persons to identify the geopolitical importance of Russia’s resources was Halford Mackinder in a paper for the Royal Geographical Society in 1904. This has not occurred without … Continued, Most who study or work to prevent and counter violent extremism and terrorism do so with one overriding purpose - to reduce, or even prevent further victims of terrorist attacks. But what will its impact be on international relations and global politics? Are we not tempted … Continued, Against a background of economic slowdown, the Chinese state is showing signs of stepping up its efforts to suppress the freedom of its religious and cultural minorities. Britain’s shift from the European continent will arguably give it more space to act in the … Continued, SPEAKER: Eliot Higgins, Founder of Bellingcat The destruction of Malaysian Airlines Flight MH17 over eastern Ukraine in July 2014 shocked the world. Paradoxically, 40 years of life under religious rule has produced a large young Iranian population that is not hostile to Western democracies, but friendly; not fanatically attached to fundamentalist interpretations of Islam, but alienated from them and often from Islam … Continued, Russia has been at war with Chechnya twice since 1991, and Chechnya has been involved with the gravest of national crises that Russia has faced since the end of the Cold War. All rights reserved. The message coming from Washington, Tokyo, Canberra and Delhi is clear: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is no longer the only game in town and Beijing’s policymakers … Continued, Since 2006, the world has been in a “democratic recession”. Finally, geopolitics clarifies the range of strategic choices, providing a guide for achieving strategic efficiency. In the British context, far-right … Continued, One of the dominant narratives which has emerged since the June 2016 UK vote on EU membership as been the “young versus old” divide – where the country’s pro-Leave older generation is pitted against its pro-Remain younger generation. Aliaksandr Lukashenka, the five-term president, claimed a landslide victory, but there is compelling evidence that the vote was rigged. With growing concern over Islamist extremism, Far-Left hate speech against Jews and the rise of Neo-Nazi terrorism, Jews in the West face a nexus of ideological animosity. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. The writing of manifestos is a hallmark of modern far-right terrorism, with the likes of Anders Breivik and Dylann Roof both producing documents explaining the motivations behind their terrorist attacks. Instead they are one of a number of tools in the Kremlin’s broader … Continued, China today is facing the worst crackdown on human rights since the Tiananmen massacre in 1989. At this event Mr. Yaakov Peri, former Director of Shin Bet, Israel’s internal security agency, will present his strategic assessment of Israel’s frontiers to the North, South, East, West and also in space. In August 2017, measures to cut migration were lauded by President Donald Trump as a helping hand to “minority … Continued, The Henry Jackson Society is delighted to invite you to the invitation-only roundtable discussion with Mihoko Matsubara, Chief Cybersecurity Strategist, NTT Corporation, Tokyo, and Azeem Aleem, VP Consulting, NTT Limited, London, on ‘Cyber Threat Landscape in Asia: Cyber attacks and Disinformation Campaigns against Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan’ on Thursday 17th of October … Continued, The Henry Jackson Society is delighted to invite you to the invitation-only roundtable discussion with His Excellency Erlan Idrissov, Ambassador of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the United Kingdom, on ‘Greater Eurasia: Dialogue. Nations have … Continued, President Vladimir Putin’s Russia seeks to weaken Western institutions and governments. https://youtu.be/Lq9zoy8Ik0s, Really insightful talk today with @_JesseMorton / @lighttuponlight on his journey in and out of Islamist extremism. Far-right inspired plots, attacks and arrests are on the rise. It reveals how our environments encourage smoking, bullying, tax … Continued, In 1993, a newly-appointed CIA director warned that Western powers might have ‘slain a large dragon’ with the fall of the USSR, but now faced a ‘bewildering variety of poisonous snakes’. Sometimes they are even hidden or something more “spectacular” is reported to draw attention, but it is this small one note there in the corner that you know, will change te course of history. For years Freedom House placed Tibet as the second least free place in the world and since the 2008 Tibetan uprising suppression there has intensified. Recent and forthcoming books include Ice: a natural and cultural history (Reaktion 2018) and Geopolitics, Genders and Geographies of James Bond (Palgrave 2017). ‘The Westernization Report’, issued by the Washington D.C.-based StrategEast … Continued, Tensions are mounting as Russia continues to move troops and equipment to Crimea and the Ukrainian border. At the same time, liberal politicians in the US have been dogged by allegations of racism and Anti-Semitism, leading to fears … Continued, Most British and American citizens have no idea that a constitutional revolution is underway in Iran. With nations unable to obtain essential supplies including PPE amidst the pandemic, import security has come to be seen as a national security concern. But commentators, including former Foreign Secretary … Continued, The 2019 UK General Election will go down as one of the most dramatic in post-war history. The CDU/CSU and SPD recently recorded their lowest vote shares for a European Parliament Election, with the Greens and Alternative für Deutschland making electoral advances. Throughout their lives, the Kennedy brothers believed that America must play a prominent role on the world stage, and that it could serve as a beacon for others to emulate. However, as Britain prepares to leave the European Union, many commentators are asking what the future holds for the ‘Special Relationship’ in terms of economic activity and commerce post-Brexit. Klaus writes on geopolitics and security often using popular culture to inform such discussions, as well as the governance of the Polar Regions and South Atlantic. But messaging around the issue of black lives has become intertwined with the … Continued, A discussion with the chairs of the House of Commons Foreign Affairs, Defence and International Development Select Committees: Tom Tugendhat MP, Tobias Ellwood MP and Sarah Champion MP Covid-19 has interrupted HM Government’s Integrated Strategic Review. As always, the US leader will most likely focus on trade deficit … Continued, SPEAKERS: Dr Michael Green - Author of By More Than Providence and Senior Vice President for Asia and Japan Chair at CSIS; Dr Alessio Patalano - Reader in War Studies, KCL; and Dr John Hemmings - Director, Asia Studies Centre, HJS Such has been the impact of Michael Green’s new book that Defence Secretary General Mattis has … Continued, In the midst of some great changes in the international system, countries have been left with the qaundry of how they wish to respond. BELLINGCAT, OPEN SOURCE INVESTIGATIONS, AND THE TRUTH ABOUT MH17, ASIAN WATERS: THE STRUGGLE OVER THE ASIA-PACIFIC AND THE STRATEGY OF CHINESE EXPANSION, THE SECRET WORLD: A HISTORY OF INTELLIGENCE, BETWEEN KIN AND COSMOPOLIS: AN ETHIC OF THE NATION, THE ISRAEL-PALESTINIAN PEACE PROCESS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. Klaus Dodds is Professor of Geopolitics at Royal Holloway, University of London and a Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences. A Memoir of Russia’s Wars against Chechnya, Dr. Tim Kane. Most recently, ISIS and its barbaric ideology has … Continued, In the wake of the UK Government’s Integrated Review and accompanying Defence Command Paper, the UK Armed Forces are set to undergo a seismic structural change in how they operate. With their different visions of European integration, Germany and France are … Continued, The Henry Jackson Society is hosting an invitation-only roundtable discussion with His Excellency Stefán Haukur Jóhannesson, Ambassador of the Republic of Iceland to the United Kingdom on "The UK and the Wider North". The Government’s announcement followed a series of concerning accounts of strategic adversaries conducting disinformation and aggressive lobbying operations in London, at the risk of undermining the UK’s democratic system. In recent years the work … Continued, As President Donald Trump confounds Washington DC and promises to reshape policy from taxation to healthcare to foreign affairs, governments and companies must grapple with crucial questions: Can the President’s tax cuts keep the economy strong, despite worldwide worries over Brexit and trade disputes? Still, Jan Lemnitzer argues that a well-regulated insurance market could provide protection to companies and solve the big issue in cybersecurity that years of awareness … Continued, In the foreign policy they pursued for more than 60 years, Jack, Bobby, and Ted Kennedy offer valuable lessons for President Biden. Countdown to the Indian General Elections: What Should We Expect? For many people who live in countries that apparently do not have problems with boundary like people living in Europe or North America, the word geopolitics is perhaps not so important; this people usually do not give the importance that actually the word needs because think that nothing related happens near to them, they are convinced that geopolitics is … What is less well recognised, however, is how Russia does this – the mechanisms that Russia abuses, and the ways this abuse … Continued, The Afghanistan War has now lasted for 17 years, and estimates suggest has cost the US government upwards of $750 billion in prosecuting it. And what more should the West … Continued, A new form of democracy is giving birth. This panel will discuss women’s voices in extremism. For much of the last two decades, authoritarian states – most obviously China and Russia -- have used a wide range of instruments to persuade, intimidate, undermine, coerce, and weaken the West. Jamie Susskind argues that rapid and relentless innovation in a range of technologies – from artificial intelligence to virtual reality - will transform the way we live together. The war Russia waged – which has claimed over 10,000 lives, almost a third of them civilians – generated considerable popularity for … Continued, In late August last year stories began to emerge in the media of a confrontation between the Royal Navy and the People’s Republic of China’s People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) in the South China Sea. And yet, … Continued, Since the last major biography of Churchill, forty-one sets of papers have been deposited at the Churchill Archives, and The Queen has allowed Dr. Andrew Roberts to be the first Churchill biographer to read her late father King George VI’s diary records of Churchill’s weekly audiences with him during the Second World War. The UK-Australia relationship is one of enduring defence, … Continued, Since the end of the Cold War, the 15 successor states to the Soviet Union have adopted different paths to their economic and political transition. Copyright © 2012 The Regents of the University of California. Arriving at a concluding point, Dodds noted that geopolitical trends can be an investment for the nation state implementing such trends: in terms of Britain, as this was the main focus of the discussion, Dodds asked what ‘we’, as a society, can be doing to promote this culture of Britain being ahead of its game in the international world. While the reasons for engagement in the first place post- 9/11 were obvious and necessary, what has been dubbed “The Endless War” seems to show no signs of ending. At this event, we will explore the Illiberalist’s temptations of … Continued, Entry into the European Community in 1973 was a momentous event - with seismic consequences for British politics and the constitution. After Covid-19: Where is Britain’s foreign policy going? Several hundred prisoners of conscience and political prisoners are today imprisoned or detained in the country, a figure comparable to that in the late Soviet Union. Geography in this regard includes both features that are ‘fixed’, such as location, topography, strategic chokepoints, climate, and natural resources, as well as elements of human and political … China’s ambitions in the Arctic are suggestive of a new geopolitical perspective. On 19th January, Navalny’s Anti-Corruption Foundation released their biggest investigation yet into their most sensitive topic yet: Vladimir Putin’s own wealth. This book breaks taboos. China and Russia have seized on … Continued, Event times are in BST The United Kingdom (UK) is currently in second place behind the United States (US) in terms of the national number of COVID-19 deaths, and also ranks highly in terms of active cases. Geopolitics, analysis of the geographic influences on power relationships in international relations. Xinjiang, a predominantly desert region rich in energy resources, comprises 17% of the Chinese territory and is one of the poorest administrative entities in China, but with a high economic development. He also … Continued, Future Politics confronts one of the most important questions of our time: how will digital technology transform politics and society? Buy The World Explained in Maps for $24.99 How does it seek to persuade our leaders, policymakers, and elites to take decisions in its interests? Keynote speakers will be Dr … Continued, On 7 September, Russia released 35 Ukrainian individuals from prison.
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